一、How to write a research proposal?

每个学术研究者必须经历的一道关卡，就是Research Proposal的写作。它大致对应中文里的“开题报告”、“选题报告”、“研究报告”，是一项研究开始之前的提纲、规划和陈述；既是为了帮助自己梳理文献、整理思路、廓清方向，也常常是写给相关他人的说明：研究动机和意义何在？可能有何成果？为什么它值得你的资助/认可/支持/批准？不知道是否可以说，好的proposal是研究成功的一半。但实际而功利的说，如果你的proposal很烂，可能根本就不会有开始研究的机会。

How to write a research proposal?

能否写出漂亮的proposal，本质上取决于你对研究的思考深度和专业水准。但形式也很重要。英文的Research Proposal自有一套“八股”。程式化和结构化的好处就在于，可以让读者直接集中注意到最本质的内容上，而不是为形式分神。对于非英语native speaker的我们，如何理解英文学术世界的规范或曰思维定势，也是写作proposal之前必备的背景知识。下面这篇流传甚广的Research Proposal写作指南，言简意赅，颇具启发，对我自己的写作有所帮助，也希望能给更多的学界同仁带来便利。

文章作者Paul T. P. Wong, Ph.D., C.Psych. (Research Director, Graduate Program in Counselling Psychology. Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada). 题为：How to Write a Research Proposal. 全文转载如下：

Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal means, nor do they understand its importance. To put it bluntly, one’s research is only as a good as one’s proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project, but also impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas.

Title:

It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, “An investigation of . . .” could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader’s interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal.

Abstract:

It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.

Introduction:

The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.

If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.

Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas.

However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current “hot” area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify “key players” and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance.

The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:

1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study. 
2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance. 
3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. 
4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research. 
5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study. 
6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.) 
7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. 
8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

Literature Review:

Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.

The literature review serves several important functions:

1. Ensures that you are not “reinventing the wheel”. 
2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. 
3. Demonst rates your knowledge of the research problem. 

4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question. 
5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information. 
6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature. 
7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research. 
8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

Most students’ literature reviews suffer from the following problems:

* Lacking organization and structure 
* Lacking focus, unity and coherence 
* Being repetitive and verbose 
* Failing to cite influential papers 
* Failing to keep up with recent developments 
* Failing to critically evaluate cited papers 
* Citing irrelevant or trivial references 
* Depending too much on secondary sources

Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.

There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.

It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)

Methods:

The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project.

The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study.

You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question.

Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.

Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.)

For quantitative studies, the method section typic ally consists of the following sections:

1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose? 
2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use? 
3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable? 
4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?

Results:

Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.

Discussion:

It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area.

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing

1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question. 
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research. 
3. Failure to cite landmark studies. 
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers. 
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question. 
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research. 
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues. 
8. Too much rambling — going “all over the map” without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.) 
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references. 
10. Too long or too short. 
11. Failing to follow the APA style. 
12. Slopping writing.

下面是来自其他一些学术从业者关于如何写proposal的意见：

* Writing Research Proposals, Drew University On-line resources for writers. 
* Guide to Writing a Research Proposal, University of Technology, Sydney. (A research proposal is required for admission to the program.) 
* Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal, University of Calgary Centre for Advancement of Health. 
* The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions, Adam Przeworski and Frank Salomon. 
* The Elements of a Proposal, Frank Pajares, Emory University.

以及，关于如何写学位论文proposal的指导（Dissertation Proposal Writing and some strategies for completing the dissertation）

* Dissertation Proposal Workshop, Institute of International Studies, UC-Berkeley. 
* Writing and Presenting your Thesis or Dissertation , LearningAssociates.net. 
* Dissertation/Project Hints: Proposal Writing, Hazel Hall, School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK. 
* Writing Theses and Dissertations, Claremont Graduate University Writing Center.

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二、Research Proposal格式内容以及相关注意事项

研究计划
即Research Proposal,出色的研究计划是展现个人学术能力，从大量申请者中脱颖而出的利器

一些国家和地区，比如新加坡、香港需要申请Master （Research oriented）和PhD的同学提供一份Research Proposal，即研究计划。

Paul T. P. Wong提到”Regardless of your research area an d the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it. The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound. ”

研究计划主要包括以下几个部分：
1.Statement of your hypothesis
2.Review of related literature
3.Methodology
4.Analysis of the problems or significant issues involved
5.Summary of your findings and your conclusions and recommendations

Research Proposal一般的长度控制在2000-3000词左右
 
Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing
1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.

完整的proposal相关内容
一份完整的proposal通常包含以下内容：
Working title, which may become the title of your paper. 
Statement of purpose, explaining what you hope your research will find. 
Background, explaining your interest in and experience with this topic: any previous research you have conducted and any classes you have taken on this or related topics, as well as any reading you have already done in the field. 
Significance, explaining why your hypothesis is topical and worth considering, or your question or series of questions is worth answering. 
Literature Review, referring to key articles and texts you should prove that you are aware of the debates and issues raised in relevant bodies of literature on your topic. 
Methodology, explaining how you will conduct your research in as much detail as possible. 
Research planning, demonstrating an awareness of the need of planning and the timescale of the research. 
Research ethics, refers to the moral principles guiding research, from its inception through to completion and publication of results and beyond 
References, making a list of printed resources which you plan to consult. Even though the standard formats are MLA, APA, Turabian, Harvard, Chicago, they may be additionally modified by your university suggesting you to avoid, for instance, footnote referencing.

四、University of Massachusetts列出的Proposal写作资源
How to write a Research Proposal
Research Proposal怎么写？本网站曾有一篇言简意赅的写作指南《怎样写一篇好的research proposal?》。下面列出更多指导如何写作Research Proposal的网上资源，从概要式的proposal写作指南，到详尽分步骤解说的research proposal写作模板，希望对你的学术研究有帮助！

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下面的Proposal写作资源由University of Massachusetts列出：
Proposal Development Tools 
? Art of Writing Proposals (Social Science Research Council) 
? Basic Budget Building Tutorial from OGCA 
? Basic Elements of Grant Writing from Corporation of Public Broadcasting 
? Funding

Definitions 
? Grant Writing Guide 
? Guide for Proposal Writing from the National Science Foundation 
? Guide for Writing a Funding Proposal with examples from Michigan State University 
? Original How to Write a Grant Application (from NIH/NIAID) 
? Proposal Writing – Points of Pride about UMass Amherst 
? Proposal Writing Short Course (Foundation Center) 
? Short Guide to the Preparation of NIH Grant Applications 
? UMass Proposal Submission Procedures 
? Successful Proposal Development, for New Faculty presented by Bruce McCandless
Director, Office of Research Affairs

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五、密歇根大学详尽的Proposal Writer’s Guide（by Don Thackrey）

来自密歇根大学的Proposal Writer’s Guide（by Don Thackrey）非常详细，除了写作外，还有做预算等指导，也包括Grant Proposal的写作，而且主要是针对学生之外的教师、研究者，很有参考价值。全文在此，大纲见下： 
Foreword
This Guide is intended for faculty and staff members with little or no experience in writing proposals for sponsored activities.
I. Introduction
II. The Parts of a Proposal
A. Research Proposals The Title Page
The Abstract
The Table of Contents
The Introduction
The Background Section
The Description of Proposed Research
The Description of Relevant Institutional Resources
The List of References
The Personnel Section
The Budget Section
The Appendices B. Proposals for Academic Programs
III. Inquiries to Private Foundations
IV. Dealing with Short Deadlines
V. Why Proposals Are Rejected

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六、University of Wisconsin-Madison给出的有关Grant Proposal写作的参考

下面是University of Wisconsin-Madison给出的有关Grant Proposal写作的参考，按申请资金来源分为三类：所有研究基金proposal、非政府资助proposal、（美国）政府资助proposal（本文从略）： 
Research Funding Proposals
? All About Grants Tutorials
For biomedical investigators applying for NIH research project grants. Maintained by its National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 
? Guide for Writing a Funding Proposal
Written by S. Joseph Levine of Michigan State University. Offers excellent advice on all parts of the proposal. Includes a sample proposal and links to other proposal writing sites. 
? Proposal Writer’s Guide
An excellent outline by Donald Thackrey for academic faculty and staff. Especially useful. A site maintained by the University of Michigan’s Division of Research and Development Administration. 
? Proposal Preparation and Submission
A site maintained by the University of Michigan’s Division of Research and Development Administration. 
? Proposal Writing: Selected Web Sites
Outstanding. Provides essential links for university scholars and researchers needing more than here on research funding in particular. 
Non-Governmental Funding Proposals
The following web sites offer excellent guidelines for grant proposal writing. Some include advice on letters of inquiry and sample proposals as well.
? Writing Winning Proposals: An Introduction 
Excellent advice from the ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 
? Grant Proposal Writing Tips
Some good, clearly-stated tips from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, which reviews hundreds of proposals a year. 
? GrantProposal.com 
Well organized site on proposal writing. Includes an overview, inquiry and cover letters, standard components of a proposal, a sample proposal, advice from funders, and more. An excellent section on researching funding opportunities is included also. 

? How to Write a Mission Statement 
A clear outline by Janet M. Radtke on writing a mission statement for an organization. A site of the Los-Angeles based Grantsmanship Center. (pdf) 
? National Network of Grantmakers: NNG Common Grant Application
This common grant application form is accepted by a number of foundations. It can also be useful in organizing the information needed in a project proposal. (pdf) 
? Nonprofit Guides: Grant Writing Tools for Nonprofit Organizations
An excellent grantwriting outline by the SeaCoast Web Design staff. Includes sample grant proposal, inquiry letter, proposed budget, applications and links to grantwriting resources. 
? The Foundation Center’s Proposal Writing Short Course 
Free, online course. 
? The Foundation Center’s Proposal Budgeting Basics 
Free, online course. 
? Foundation Center Webinars on Proposal Writing Basics 
Free; must register in advance. 
? The Foundation Center’s Guide to Proposal Writing, 5th ed. – An Audio Book! 
Free audio book from the Foundation Center. Listen online now or download for later listening. 
? Sample Grant Proposals 
Proposals from the Idea Bank’s Grant Writing Course. Most are successfully funded, and are for funding for fire departments. 
? School Grants
Offers a number of education-focused, successful, sample proposals. Most are directed to corporate or government funding sources and are downloadable in PDF format. 
? Winning Grant Proposals Online 
Provides funded grant proposals for sale in a variety of categories. Particularly well-stocked with federal grant proposals. A site from the Grantsmanship Center, a Los-Angeles based proposal training center. 
? Wisconsin Common Application Form (Donors Forum of Wisconsin) 
A form used by a variety of Wisconsin grantmakers. 
? Writing a Successful Grant Proposal
An excellent and thorough guide for writing grant proposals, from the Minnesota Council on Foundations. FAQs include pros and cons of hiring a professional grantwriter and what to do if a proposal is funded.